Articles

Contribution of Christian Missionaries to the Linguistic and Ethnic Identity of the People of Northeast India through the Bible

Opinion | Articles | George Plathottam | 02-Sep-2022

 Introduction:

The paper examines the contribution of the pioneer Christian missionaries who through the Bible provided a distinct identity to the languages and dialects of Northeast India and enhanced the ethnic identities of the tribal communities in the region. The efforts of missionaries like William Carey and his Serampore mission and the work of other pioneers in translating and publishing the Bible contributed significantly to the preservation and promotion of the languages of the region. It may be noted that the Bible and biblical tracts are the first ever written and printed literature in most of the tribal languages of Northeast India. The Bible became the chief literary treasure which influenced religious and secular literature. The Bible translations in the vernacular languages became a rich resource for the development of the tribal lexicon, grammar and literature and the chief instrument in promoting literacy, education and a host of other literary and linguistic activities. Efforts among the various churches and denominations to bring out mutually acceptable Bible translations and publications in several languages had far reaching impact and also led to laudable ecumenical collaboration among them.

Most importantly, the Bible translated and published in vernacular languages helped the people of the region, particularly the numerous tribal communities, to discover the richness of the saving message of Christ and embrace the Christian faith. In the Bible they were able to discover not only a close affinity with their own worldviews and cultural aspirations but a new identity and a powerful stimulus to strengthening their ethnic and cultural identities.

 Northeast India is bordered in the north by Bhutan, Tibet, and China; in the east and southeast by Myanmar; and in the west and southwest by Bangladesh. It is connected to the rest of India by a narrow strip of land in West Bengal. Demographically, Northeast India may be divided broadly into “tribal” and “non-tribal”.  A majority of the tribal population is Christian whereas the non-tribals are Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, or Buddhist. Though the earliest record of Christian presence in the region can be traced to the 17th century, organised missionary activity and conversion of indigenous people to Christianity date back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The missionaries were chiefly American Baptists, Welsh Presbyterians and Roman Catholics.

 Northeast India is inhabited by numerous tribes and communities, making the region a veritable ethnic hotspot. There are more than four hundred languages and dialects in the region, making it remarkable for its linguistic density. The region is also home to a rich flora and fauna with an unenviable biodiversity.[1]  The people of the region are known for their rich culture and traditions, hospitality, joyful celebration of life, legacy of music, songs, dances and folk tales.  In spite of these it may be noted that several parts of Northeast India simmer under the spell of ethnic unrest, conflicts and violence.

 There have been several studies on the impact of Christianity in Northeast India undertaken by social scientists, church leaders, universities and academic faculties. These studies deal with diverse aspects of Christian influence on the people of Northeast. In this paper we examine the contribution of the Bible towards shaping the linguistic and ethnic identity of the people of the region.

 Bible Translations, Education, and Identity Making

The Bible provided a distinct identity to the languages and dialects of Northeast India and enhanced the ethnic identities of the tribal communities of the region. More than one tribe in the region has mythological stories which describe how they lost the book containing their history and tradition while crossing the river. These stories allude to a number of factors like migration from a distant land to the region which today is called Northeast India; the loss of significant aspects of their collective historical past; a disconnect with a past shrouded in mystery; a keenness to provide explanation for the missing ethnographic link; a deep yearning to define and preserve their respective identities as a people with distinct traditions, myths, worldviews and languages. Whatever may be the historical accuracy of the myth of losing the books or other stories, it must have been providential that the people received another book, the Bible, a book that would have important consequences for their identity.

 Historians and scholars agree, on the basis of available evidence, that the tribal people did not have a script or any written literature until the arrival of the Christian missionaries and the British colonial powers. It was the pioneer missionaries who helped to reduce the hitherto oral tribal dialects into written languages, and formalize their scripts. The first literary works in most languages of the tribal people were portions of the Bible.  While acknowledging the selfless services of numerous missionaries and their early converts to the gigantic enterprise of Bible translations, this paper does not intend to explore in detail the history of the monumental project of Bible translations and publications in different languages. Rather, the present study is limited to examining the historic significance and impact of Bible on the numerous communities and languages of Northeast India and how the Scriptures in their vernacular versions contributed to shape their ethnic, cultural and linguistic identity.

 The first language to come under the influence of the missionaries in the region was Assamese. It is an Indo-European language and is the lingua franca of the people of the densely populated Brahmaputra Valley. Assamese today is the biggest language spoken in Northeast India. Although it has an ancient literary heritage, modern Assamese literature began with the translation work started by the Christian missionaries since the 19^th century. In 1836, the first American Baptist missionaries, Nathan Brown and Oliver Cutter, arrived in Sadiya, in upper Assam. Soon they published a book in Assamese using the Roman script. In order that the Christian literature may be read and understood, the missionaries began schools in Sadiya and elsewhere and published Christian literature and text books. Brown, finding that the earlier Assamese Bible translated by William Carey was not intelligible to the average Assamese, began work on a new translation. The work was completed in 1839. Besides the translations of the New Testament and portions of the Old Testament and several tracts in the Assamese language, Brown with the help of Cutter began in 1842 to publish a monthly journal in Assamese called Orunodoi, a magazine devoted to religion, science and general information.[2]

 Missionaries contributed in no small measure to the shaping of tribal and Assamese identity. Were it not for their persistent efforts, the Assamese people would have been compelled to accept Bengali as their lingua franca. They, with the wholehearted support of the Baptist missionaries, led an agitation against the decision of the government to use Bengali in the law courts and schools of Assam. Around the year 1838, the missionaries and the people demanded that Assamese be recognised as a distinct language with its own literary style -- a demand which strained the relationship between the missionaries and William Robinson, a former missionary of the English Baptist mission who subsequently became Inspector of Schools and who supported the more extensive use of Bengali. By 1853 the debate became more pronounced but it would take some more years for the government to order in 1873 that Assamese should be reinstated as the language of the courts and schools in Assam.[3]

 The Baptist missionaries in Assam did to the Assamese language what the Serampore mission, under the leadership of Carey, did in promoting Bengali language in Bengal. The former stimulated the Assamese with a literary renaissance, established schools, promoted modern literature and literary style, both through their own compositions and the publications of the Baptist Mission Press at Sibsagar. Christian missionaries printed in those early years books such as grammars, dictionaries, school text book translations from Christian texts and reproductions of Assamese literary works, including novels.  Aided by the first converts like Nidhi Farwell, the pioneer missionaries contributed much to develop the Assamese language further and gave it a new lease of life. So immense and important was their work that between 1846 and 1851, the missionaries published some five million pages of Christian literature, which constituted ninety percent of the total Assamese literature published in the period, giving to the Assamese language a distinct and permanent identity.[4]

 Christian missionaries were in the forefront of providing education to the people of the region. Invariably schools were established wherever mission centres were set up. For instance, Alexander Lish established three schools in and around Cherrapunjee. Thomas Jones continued the work of his predecessor. By 1851 when the Welsh Mission completed ten years in the Khasi Hills, there were five schools.  Whereas much of the expenses for the printing work of the missions were borne by the individual missions, the government encouraged education by giving occasional financial grants. The American Baptist Mission established schools in Sadiya, Sibsagar, around Nowgong, in the Garo Hills, among the Adivasis, and the Naga Hills to provide education to the people.

 The missionaries and the British administration were unanimous on the importance of providing education to the people, though their motives differed. For the British administration providing education was an integral part of the overall policy of ‘civilizing’ the hill tribes. ‘Civilization’ to them meant effecting moderation in such customs and habits as their frequent raids into the plains and head-hunting. The tribes were not easily amenable to the state’s rules and regulations which many tribesmen possibly just could not comprehend. This called for a policy which would lead to change. If the government could not do this by administrative procedures and by coercive measures, it would be left to the missionaries to do so in their own manner.[5]  However, while the administration considered education as part of the civilizing efforts of the tribals, the missionaries regarded literacy and education as necessary for the conversion of the people to Christianity so that they could read and understand the Bible.

 Missionary Contribution to Bible Translation

One person whose name stands out in the mission history of Asia in general, and of Bengal and Northeast India in particular, is William Carey, a Scottish missionary who came to India in 1793. Carey established a mission press in Mudnabatty in Bengal in 1798, which in 1800 he moved to Serampore.  The Serampore mission and the press are considered the first and most influential instrument of Bible publications in north and Northeast India. The earliest Bible translations of the region owe their existence to Carey and the Serampore mission.  With the help of some Assamese scholars, Carey for the first time translated the New Testament in Assamese. He followed this with translations and publications of parts of the Bible in several languages of the region.[6]

 Carey was the first to translate the Bible also in the Khasi language using the Bengali script. Five hundred copies of the Khasi Bible were printed but his efforts did not have lasting effect as the translation was so imperfect and was unintelligible to the Khasis. Alexander Lish of the same mission, while posted at Cherrapunjee, translated portions of the Bible, and prepared a Khasi grammar. He used Bengali script to write Khasi as many of the hill people in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills were conversant with it due to centuries of interaction with the Bengalis of Sylhet.[7]

Thomas Jones, the first Welsh Calvinist Methodist missionary to the Khasis, arrived in Cherrapunjee in 1841. Though he had no knowledge of any Indian language, he attempted to give the tribe a written script. At  first he used Bengali script “which proved an insuperable difficulty to his pupils”, and in spite of much adverse criticism, he adopted  Roman script for the school primers and other translations. The Bible as the architect of modern Khasi vernacular language laid the foundation of Khasi literature on a firm basis.[8] Thomas Jones is today regarded by the Khasis as the father of Khasi literature. Missionaries who came after him further developed the language and literature. Communicating the gospel was the primary concern of Jones, be it linguistic works or education. In one of his letters Jones wrote:

“The only plan which appears to me likely to answer a good purpose is to establish schools in the various villages, to teach the Khasis -children and adults- to read their own language and to instruct them in the principles of Christian religion; to draw the children to the schools, to train native teachers; and to make use of the natives to teach their fellow countrymen to read. In this way we shall not only bring up the young people in their knowledge of Gospel doctrines, but we shall also teach them to read; and when we shall have translated and printed the Holy Scriptures into their language, we shall have some, at least in every family, able to read them”.[9]

 The early American Baptist missionaries in the Garo Hills had one advantage over the Welsh Calvinists in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills; they had some experience in the region before moving into the Garo Hills in the early 1860s, and therefore it was not too difficult for them to converse and write in Bengali characters for the Garo. They preferred the Bengali characters as better suited for the Garo language and more useful to the tribe who were generally “adverse to the acquisition of their own language and anxious to learn only Bengali and English”.[10] The arrival of Reverends Phillips and Mason in Tura, the district headquarters, in December 1874 was an important step in the direction of developing missionary work among the Garos. They began to propagate the use of the Roman script for the Garo language. They first prepared and printed a few primers and found that the Garos were interested in reading them.  The American Baptist Mission Conference of 1893 in its meeting in Tura resolved that the Roman script was best suited for the hill tribes of Assam who did not have their own script or literature. However, it was only after a decade that the decision was taken to make this change effective for Garo literature.[11]

 Reverend Clarke worked among the various Naga tribes and the Naga inhabited areas of Manipur, studying their languages. The hill people had relatively less interaction with the people of the plains. The pioneers realised that it would be ill-advised  to use the Assamese characters for reducing the languages  of the hill tribes into written form.  Hence they adopted the Roman script to write the languages of the larger Naga tribes– the Angamis, the Lothas, the Aos and the Semas. They introduced writing for nineteen tribal languages.[12]

 The success of the Welsh mission in encouraging the growth of the Khasi language influenced the missionaries to give the Mizos and their kindred tribes the Roman script. J. H. Lorraine and F. W. Savidge of the Arthington Aborigines Mission were instrumental in the promotion of Mizo language.[13] The Christian missionaries also reduced into written form many other tribal languages of the Naga tribes of Manipur, the Karbis of Assam, while their efforts to give the Roman script to the Bodos of Assam and the larger tribes of Tripura faced a counter move in support of the Devnagiri script. Today the issue of script continues to be a hotly debated and contentious one for several languages of the ethnic communities such as the Bodos, the Rabhas, the Adivasis in Assam and the Kokborok speaking tribes of Tripura.    

 It is Christ’s command to proclaim the Gospel to all nations that motivated the missionaries to leave their own homelands and to venture out into totally unknown places and people. Missionary activity is rooted in the proclamation of the Gospel as is evident from the terms  ‘evangelism’, or ‘evangelization’, derived from ‘Evangelium’ or ‘Evangelion’- meaning the Gospel or the Good News. It was only natural for the missionaries to be fired with zeal to share the Word of God to the indigenous people in a language and expression they would understand. In doing so, the missionaries had to brave many challenges: learn the languages themselves and codify and reduce them to writing; develop policies and criteria for orthography to reduce the hitherto spoken dialects to writing. They also had to select one or the other dialects from the many that were spoken in a particular area as the chief instrument for all literary activities.

 Missionaries and scholars engaged in Bible translations even today testify to the arduous nature of their work. They had to deal with several complex issues while translating the Bible into vernacular languages. These issues were more complex in the case of Northeastern region with its wide variety of languages. Besides acquiring mastery over the languages, they had to compile word books and dictionaries, develop new words or loan them in order to be able to express complex themes and ideas of the Bible. Even in the early stages of missionary work, the biblical literature in vernacular languages helped conversions. Several early converts, like Ramkhe Momin and Omed Momin, the two first Garos to become Christian, were influenced by biblical literature.[14]  The message of the Bible and the preaching of the missionaries led to rapid conversions among the tribal people to Christianity. Biblical themes found its way into popular as well as devotional songs and hymns of the various tribes.

 Biblical Worldviews and Tribal Worldviews

One can also discover close affinity with many of the biblical stories about creation, redemption, salvation, sin in the tribal folklore. The Khasi myths about Hynniewtrep- the seven families in heaven and seven families on earth and the disruption of the harmony with the destruction of  a ladder that connected them-  have close affinity with the idea of original sin, salvation and redemption. The Khasi beliefs about sacrificing of a cock or the Garo story about crucifying a monkey resemble the sacrifice of Christ on the cross. The Garo folktale about people trying to reach the moon with a bamboo ladder which collapsed resembles the story of the tower of Babel.

 Biblical notion of harmony with nature, respect and reverence for God’s creation are also found in many tribal stories. The sun and moon worship (Dony-Polo) among the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, or the notion of sacred forests or the tiger man stories are mythical links that connect the transcendent, humans and nature. The biblical affirmation of creation as God’s handiwork finds parallel in much of the tribal worldview. Many tribal religions have close affinity to the biblical worldview, enabling the people to see Christianity as a kind of fulfilment of the seminal values in their traditional religions.

Bible translations in tribal languages entailed considerable difficulties also on account of the long period of history as chronicled in the various books of the Bible as well as the complex nature of its content and form. The Bible is the book of books which includes several centuries of history, and contains a variety of literary forms such as prose, poetry, allegory, parables, proverbs, allusions. It contains theological concepts and ideas that need interpretation. Efforts to translate the Bible into the many languages of the region in spite of the innumerable challenges it demanded,  was a richly rewarding work as  the people were able to discover the richness of divine revelation and the importance of incarnation, the sacrifice of Christ on the cross  and salvation in him. The Bible  helped them to accept the new teachings as revealed in the Word of God. It strengthened many traditionally held values among the tribal people which are akin to biblical precepts like  God’s unconditional love, respect for nature and acknowledgement of the earth and the humans as God’s creation, hospitality to strangers, respect or the elders, forgiveness, justice and mercy, thanksgiving and praise, community living and sharing, compassion and care for the less privileged.    

 The Bible and its teachings have helped tribal Christians to study and assume leadership of the local churches. From the beginning, there were leaders from the first converts who assisted in translations and the work of preaching and assuming stewardship of the church.  The remark of Ariarajah[15] is true also about the Church in Northeast India:  “Several decades after the end of colonialism, churches that have emerged from Western missionary activities are beginning to look at what they have inherited as the Gospel message and “Christian” culture. And they have a fuller awareness of the need to own the Gospel anew in their own culture and in an idiom that makes sense to their own people.”

 Bible is a divinely inspired religious book as well as literary masterpiece and as such it should be studied in depth.  There is also the need to promote publications related to the Bible in local languages such as literary criticism, commentary, study guides and other resources suited to deepen understanding. In this regard the work of renowned scripture scholar Fr. Sylvanus Sngi Lyngdoh sdb, to the Khasi literature and biblical studies in context is commendable. His Greek-Khasi and Hebrew-Khasi dictionaries and numerous Bible commentaries and other literary works are a rich resource, and an example for other tribes to emulate. Similar studies can help deepen the close affinity between the Bible and the tribal worldview and also enrich the local languages. Similarly, growth in vernacular languages and literature would in turn enhance further deepening of knowledge and understanding of the Bible.

 While it is difficult to measure with accuracy the quantum of contribution the Bible has made to various languages of the region, it cannot be denied that the Bible provided the strongest motive for introduction of script, preparation of primers, dictionaries and literature, establishment of schools and introduction of literacy and education. The Baptist Mission Board made learning of vernacular languages and giving an examination before a church elder mandatory for foreign missionaries. The Welsh Calvinist missionaries made ability to read and write a prerequisite for baptism with a view to ensure that the new converts would be able to read the Bible and be nourished by the Word of God. Only those who were too old to learn were exempt from this rule.

 Importance of Bible among Northeast Communities

The central place of the Bible in the life of the early Christian communities in the region is evident from the solemnity with which the first copies of the vernacular editions of the Bible were received among the many tribal communities. Mission chronicles and diaries of missionaries describe the hardships and struggle many missionaries and their collaborators endured in the work of Bible translations and publications. At the same time, they also note with gladness how their labour of love was rewarded when the people welcomed the Bible with great enthusiasm.  

 Christianity and its tenets founded on biblical teachings have profoundly influenced the social life, worldview and value systems of the tribal people of Northeast India.  However, one might question the legitimacy of this assertion in the face of violence, unrest and inter-tribal and ethnic conflicts in the predominantly Christian states of the region.  One must not be oblivious of the fact that Christianity and the Gospel message reached the tribal people of the region only a century and half ago. In the long history of the Bible or of Christianity it is a rather short span of time. The Bible continues to inspire people and provide the yardstick by which human actions, be it individual or social, must be conducted and evaluated. Adherents of the Gospel cannot be advocates of violence, racial hatred or unjust and oppressive systems. The Word of God does not provide alibi, but must become the standard to judge the life and conduct of Christ’s disciples as individuals and the Church as a community of believers.  At the same time the Bible also teaches patience and understanding in the face of human frailties and sinful structures. It challenges Christ’s followers to ever strive to “be perfect as the heavenly Father is perfect” (Mt.5, 48). The Bible continues to provide the roadmap for the fledgling Christian community to strive to live their lives according to the Gospel precepts.

 The Bible is the primary resource for Sunday worship among the Protestant Churches, and is widely used in the liturgy of the Catholic Church. The Word of God is proclaimed and preached every Sunday and on other occasions, making its presence truly alive among the people. Many believers as well as people of other faiths read the Bible frequently. Many people who have embraced Christianity testify to the decisive influence of the Bible in their conversion. Numerous Bible colleges, study centres, courses and programmes in the region further enhance the centrality of the Bible in carving out a distinct identity to the people who respect Christ.[16] in his brief study on the seminaries of Northeast India asked seminarians, “What subjects did you really miss in your seminary training?” Their response was unanimous—a lack of comprehensive knowledge of the Bible. To another question to the lay people on what they expect the seminary teachers should train future pastors, they replied: “teach them to be relevant in preaching, and teach them how to expound the Word of God.” The Bible is not only for Christians. I have often heard people of other faiths refer to the Bible with reverence by using the pre-fix the “Holy” Bible.

 Bible and Development of Local Languages

Numerous studies have been done on the contribution of the Bible to the literature of the world’s leading languages. The English language, for instance, has numerous words, phrases and sayings that have come down from the Bible. The Bible as a literary work has profoundly impacted the literature in the various vernacular languages of Northeast India too. This is a subject that needs further research. Biblical themes have provided inspiration for devotional and spiritual writings as well as for fiction and poetry, songs and stories. Missionaries and Christian converts from the tribal communities have enriched the vernacular literature through the mutually enriching encounter between the Bible and the indigenous languages. Bible translations have, undoubtedly, enriched the vocabulary and idiom of the tribal languages. New words have been coined and loan words have been brought into the tribal languages in the process of Bible translations, thereby enriching these languages. Many Christians have assumed biblical names. Biblical dramas, operas, art works, music have also contributed to enrich the languages and the cultures of the region.

 Ecumenical collaboration found its most laudable expression in the joint translations and publications of the Bible in the region. The Bible Societies and church leaders of various churches and denominations and scholars of particular language communities have worked in unison and in close collaboration to bring out ecumenical editions of the Bible. With the exception of specifically Catholic editions of the Bible in Khasi, Karbi, Bodo and Mizo, all other languages in the region share common ecumenical editions of the complete Bible. The Khasi Catholic Bible is remarkable for its scholarly translation and comments, phonological notes, study guide and maps, making it a literary masterpiece and a major contribution to the Khasi language. The praiseworthy contribution of the Bible Society of India and its translation centre in Shillong  have given a fillip to the process of making the Word of God reach every home in Northeast India.

 Conclusion

In conclusion, it may be noted that in any study of the encounter between the cultural history and the legacy of the Bible on a particular group of people or community, it is not easy to gauge the extent of their mutual influence. As Athiyal [17] points out, “Our texts, the biblical and the cultural-historical, must be constantly put under the scrutiny of our contexts- and our contexts too, defined in the light of the Gospel.

 The Bible is a dynamic book and hence there are challenges before the Christian community in Northeast India to continue the process of critical and contextual hermeneutic without losing the richness of the Scriptures and without losing sight of the positive values of the tribal people.  Jamir [18] points out the tendency among common believers to treat the Bible as if it has fallen straight from heaven or to treat it in a superstitious manner. He points out the need to avoid two dangers: First, the tendency to romanticize the past at the expense of sound biblical theology. Any critical contextual hermeneutic should be realistic in its outlook. Many cultures are evolving toward hybrid cultures, but idealizing past traditions or worldview is anachronistic. This does not mean that past traditions have to be dispelled. The hybrid cultures have to be acknowledged. Second, one has to be mindful that there is a strong tendency in postmodern hermeneutics to treat the context as the norma normans (the norming norm) and the Scripture as the norma normata (the normed norm). This is a grievous danger. Scripture ought to be the starting context for any theology. Contextualization happens only when both the biblical horizon and one’s own contextual horizon interact with each other. In other words, tribal theology cannot be right theology by only emphasizing the indigenous context.

 According to Lama [19] the inductive process of biblical studies opens avenues for the tribals to utilize some of their existing positive cultural traits such as their oral traditions, narrative style of communication, shame, honour society, kinship relationships, and their agricultural rural life settings— traits similar to those of the Israelites in Scripture—to inform them in their observations of the Bible. In doing this, a vista is opened for Christians in Northeast India to nurture and revitalize their traditional culture and, thus, shape their identity in the light of the Gospel.

 The encounter between the Bible and the tribal languages and cultures must continue to challenge the people of Northeast India, their leaders and scholars. Greater efforts must be made to deepen the symbiotic relationship between the two through rigorous study and research even as the pilgrim people continue their journey like the Israelites of old, and the tribal ancestors of Northeast, unil we arrive at the Promised Land.  

 Endnotes and References

[1] G. Plathottam,  “Language Plurality, Biodiversity and Ethnicity: Identity and Change in Northeast India”,  in Christianity and  Change in Northeast India, eds. T.B. Subha, Joseph Puthenpurakal and Shaji Joseph Puykunnel (New Delhi: Concept Publishing  Company, 2009), 158-173.

[2] G. Plathottam, “Contribution of Christianity to Language and Literature”, in Impact of Christianity on North East India, ed Joseph Puthenpurakal (Shillong: Vendrame Publications, 1996), 334-374.

[3] Sangma M and Syiemlieh D.R., eds “Essays on Christianity in North-East India”, (Shillong, 1994) and Syiemlieh D., Colonialism and Christian Missions in North East India, in Indian Church History Review, (undated), www.chai-online.net/html/Journal1.htm (visited in December 2015).

[4] F.S. Downs, The Mighty Works of God, a Brief History of the Council of Baptist Churches in North East India: The Mission Period 1836-1950 (Guwahati: Christian Literature Centre, 1971).

[5] Sangma M and Syiemlieh D.R., eds “Essays on Christianity in North-East India”, (Shillong, 1994) and Syiemlieh D., Colonialism and Christian Missions in North East India, in Indian Church History Review, (undated), www.chai-online.net/html/Journal1.htm (visited in December 2015).

[6]D. Rhodes, The Spread of Printing: India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma and Thailand, (Amsterdam: Vanderbilt & Co., 1969).

[7] Syiemlieh D., Colonialism and Christian Missions in North East India, in Indian Church History Review, (undated), www.chai-online.net/html/Journal1.htm (visited in December 2015).

[8] H. Bareh, A Short History of Khasi Literature, (Shillong: no publisher cited, 1962).

[9] J. H. Morris, “Chapter IV: The Khasia Hills: 1841-1890” in The Story of our Mission, (Liverpool: Huge Evans and sons Ltd., 1930), 26-59.

[10] Syiemlieh D., Colonialism and Christian Missions in North East India, in Indian Church History Review, (undated), www.chai-online.net/html/Journal1.htm (visited in December 2015).

[11] Milton S. Sangma, History of Garo Literature, (Shillong: North Easter Hill University Publication, 1983).

[12] J. Puthenpurakal, Baptist Mission in Nagaland, (Shillong: Vendrame  Missiological Institute, 1984).

[13] L Dena, Christian Missions and Colonialism: a Study of Missionary Movement in North East India with Particular Reference to Manipur and Lushai Hills 1894-1947, (Shillong: Vendrame Institute, 1988), 65-68.

[14] G. Plathottam, “Contribution of Christianity to Language and Literature”, in Impact of Christianity on North East India, ed Joseph Puthenpurakal (Shillong: Vendrame Publications, 1996), 334-374.

[15] S. Wesley Ariarajah, Gospel and Culture: (An Ongoing Discussion within the Ecumenical Movement), (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1994).

[16] K. Lama, Re-Envisioning Seminary-Church Relationship: A Response from the Baptist Churches in NE India, (BN 61 vol.3, 2012), 18-28.

[17] Jesudas M. Athiyal, Doing Christian Theology in Asian ways, ATESEA Occasional Papers, No.12 (undated), http://jmathyal.tripod.com/id15.html

[18] Sashi M. Jamir, “Inductive Bible Study: Contextual Appropriation in Northeast India” The Asbury Journal: Vol. 68: No. 1, (Asbury Theological Seminary, 2013), 42-55.

[19] K. Lama, Re-Envisioning Seminary-Church Relationship: A Response from the Baptist Churches in NE India, (BN 61 vol.3, 2012), 18-28.

 

(The Author is a Salesian Priest, the Executive Secretary of FABC Office of Social Communication, Philippines. He can be reached on gplath@gmail.com Views are personal)

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